ISSN: 2953-7606
ARTÍCULOS
EDITORIAL
CONTENIDO
Presentación…………………………………………………………………………………1
ISSN: 2953-7606
Posibles futuros e incerdumbres en el currículo
universitario…………………………………………………………..........………….…19
Líneas de invesgación en Relaciones
Internacionales: un análisis bibliométrico de
revistas especializadas en Costa Rica e
Hispanoamérica (2018-2022)…………………….…….………….…...............122
Cianobacterias y microalgas: Potencial para la
salud, la agricultura y el medio ambiente con un
vistazo a la investigación en Costa Rica…………………….…….………….…72
Entrepreneurial Intenon of Students at the
University of Guadalajara…………………………………………….…………….…28
Escazú Agreement: A Framework for Protecng
Environmental Human Rights Defenders and
Advancing SDG 16.…………………………………………………………………….…5
PUBLICACIÓN DE LA UNIVERSIDAD INTERNACIONAL DE LAS AMÉRICAS
GERENCIA DE INNOVACIÓN Y CALIDAD
VOLUMEN 7, 2025 – ISSN:2953-7606
Todos los artículos publicados en esta revista están
protegidos bajo la licencia internacional Creative
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Internacional (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)
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reflejen el quehacer científico, principalmente desde el ámbito de Ciencias de la Salud, Ciencias
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Esta revista sigue el modelo de publicación de acceso abierto diamante y se apoya en las normas
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también integra organizaciones académicas como COPE, DOAJ y WAME.
EQUIPO EDITORIAL 2025
DIRECCIÓN EDITORIAL
x Adriana Luna Canales – Editora en jefe
x Alejandro Monge Salazar – Editor Asociado
EQUIPO TÉCNICO
x Roberto Aragón Quintanilla – Desarrollo Web
x José Esteban Ulloa Granados – Diseño Gráfico
x Gina Valerio Calvo - Filóloga
ISSN: 2953-7606
ISSN: 2953-7606
CONSEJO EDITORIAL
x Emmanuel Coto Roque – Universidad Internacional de las Américas
x Karen Kenton Paniagua - Universidad Internacional de las Américas
x Luis Carlos Serrano Madrigal – Universidad Internacional de las Américas
x Mónica Delgado Marín - Universidad Internacional de las Américas
x Harold Coronado Coronado - Universidad Internacional de las Américas
COMITÉ CIENTÍFICO EXTERNO
Gustavo Jiménez Barboza, Mag. – Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)
Daniel García Ramírez - Independiente
Pablo Calderón Villalobos, Mag. – Universidad Nacional (UNA)
Juan Esteban Durango Rave, Mag. – Universidad Libre de Derecho
'ƌĞƩĐŚĞŶŐ&ůŽƌĞƐ^ĂŶĚş, Dra. – Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)
Esteban Paniagua Vega, Mag. – Universidad nacional (UNA)
Juan Carlos Morales-Jiménez, Dr. – Universidad Estatal a Distancia (UNED)
:ƵĂŶŝĞŐŽ^ĄŶĐŚĞnj^ĄŶĐŚĞnj, D r. – Independiente
&ĞƌŶĂŶĚŽDŽŶƚĞƌŽŽƌĚĞƌŽ, Mag. – Universidad Nacional (UNA)
Gilmar Navarrete Chacón, Ing. – &KE&/&K
ƵĂLJŶĞƌ^ĂůĂƐŚĂǀĞƌƌŝ, Mag. – Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)
'ƵƐƚĂǀŽ^ĄĞŶnj'ĂƌĐşĂDĂŐ – WƵŶƚŽ^Ğguro
Guiselle María Garbanzo Vargas, Dra. – Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR)
KƌĂůŝĂ^ƵĄƌĞnjZŽƐĂƌŝŽƌĂ – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚĚĞWĂŶĂŵĄ;hWͿ
DĂƌşĂĚĞůŽƐŶŐĞůĞƐKƌƚĞŐĂĞůZŽƐĂƌŝŽƌĂ – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚdĞĐŶŽůſŐŝĐĂĚĞWĂŶĂŵĄ;UTP)
Rafael R. Cúnsulo, Dr. – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚĚĞůEŽƌƚĞ^ĂŶƚŽdŽŵĄƐĚĞƋƵŝŶŽ;hE^dͿ
ĞĐŝůŝĂ^ĂĂǀĞĚƌĂ&ƌĞƐŝĂDĂŐ– hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚĚĞůEŽƌƚĞ^ĂŶƚŽdŽŵĄƐĚĞƋƵŝŶŽ;hE^dͿ
^ŽůĂŶŐĞ&ŝŶŬĞůƐnjƚĞŝŶƌĂ – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚƌŐĞŶƟŶĂĚĞůĂŵƉƌĞƐĂ;hͿ
ZŽŵĄŶƵŐƵƐƚŽDŽŶƌŽLJDĂŐ – Universidad dĞůEŽƌƚĞ^ĂŶƚŽdŽŵĄƐĚĞƋƵŝŶŽ;hE^dͿ
Pablo Bianchi Palomares, Dr. – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚEĂĐŝŽŶĂůĚĞƵLJŽ;hEhzKͿ
WĞĚƌŽ>ƵŝƐ&ŝŐƵĞƌŽĂDĂŐ – Universidad Provincial de Córdoba (UPC)
ƌŝĐĂ^ĐŚĞŶŬĞůƌĂ– hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚEĂĐŝŽŶĂůĚĞů^Ƶƌ- KE/d
Ivanna Novotny Núñez, Dra. – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚĞůEŽƌƚĞ^ĂŶƚŽdŽŵĂƐĚĞƋƵŝŶŽ;hE^dͿ
Juan Pablo Vélez Uribe, Dr. – Corporación Universitaria Remington
ŝĂŶĂDĂƌşĂsĄƐƋƵĞnjǀĞůůĂŶĞĚĂƌĂ – Universidad del Valle
Milton Trujillo-Losada, Dr. – Universidad del Valle
José Luis ĂŵĂƌĞŶĂDĂƌơŶĞnjƌ – Universidad Externado de Colombia
Alejandro Arango Correa, Dr. – Corporación Universitaria Remington
Luis Alberto Vargas Marín, Dr. – Universidad de Manizales
Juan Esteban Vélez Álvarez, Mag. – Corporación Universitaria Remington
ZŚŝŶĂŝŶŽƌĂ&ůŽƌĞƐEĂǀĂƐDĂŐ – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚEƵĞǀĂ^ĂŶ^ĂůǀĂĚŽƌ;hE^^Ϳ
ŶƚŽŶŝŽsĄƐƋƵĞnj,ŝĚĂůŐŽWŚ. – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚĚĞů^ĂůǀĂĚŽƌ;h^Ϳ
ŝĞŐŽŶƌŝƋƵĞdŽǀĂƌKƐĞŐƵĞĚĂDĂŐ– hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚĞŶƚƌŽĂŵĞƌŝĐĂŶĂ:ŽƐĠ^ŝŵĞſŶĂŹĂƐ;hͿ
:ŽƐĠKƐŵĂŶ>ſƉĞnjĂŶĂůĞƐƌ. – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚEĂĐŝŽŶĂůƵƚſŶŽŵĂĚĞ,ŽŶĚƵƌĂƐ;hE,Ϳ
>ƵŝƐŝĞŐŽŚĂĐſŶsşƋƵĞnjƌ – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚdĞĐŶŽůſŐŝĐĂĚĞ,ŽŶĚƵƌĂƐ;hd,Ϳ
ŝĂŶĂĂƌŽůŝŶĂDŝƌĂůĚĂ&únez, Mag. – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚEĂĐŝŽŶĂůƵƚſŶŽŵĂĚĞ,ŽŶĚƵƌĂƐ;hE,Ϳ
:ŽƐĠĂƌůŽƐƌĄŶŐƵĞnjƌĄŶŐƵĞnjƌ – Universidad Europea de Madrid (UEM)
Diego Arceredillo Alonso, Dr. – Universidad Internacional de Valencia (VIU)
Alejandro del Pino Del Pino Tortonda, Dr. – Universidad Camilo José Cela (UCJC)
DĂƌşĂĚĞůWŝůĂƌ:ŝŵĠŶĞnjDĂƌơŶĞnjƌĂ – Universidad Camilo José Cela (UCJC)
DĂƌşĂZĂƋƵĞůWŝĐŽƌŶĞůůƵĞŶĚşĂƌĂ – Universidad Camilo José Cela (UCJC)
^ĂƌĂĂďĂŹĂƐƌĞĂƌĂ – Universidad Camilo José Cela (UCJC)
Daniel del Valle-/ŶĐůĄŶZŽĚƌşŐƵĞnjĚĞMiñón, D r. – Universidad Camilo José Cela (UCJC)
WĞƌĐLJ'ƵnjŵĄŶDŽŶƚĞƌŽ, Dr. – EĂƟŽŶĂůĂŶĐĞƌ/ŶƐƟƚƵƚĞ;E/Ϳ
^ĂŶĚƌĂZĞŶƚĂƐDĂŐ – University of Nevada
WĂƵů^ĄŶĐŚĞnj Ruiz, Dr. – /ŽǁĂ^ƚĂƚĞhŶŝǀĞƌƐŝƚLJŽĨ^ĐŝĞŶĐĞĂŶĚdĞĐŚŶŽůŽŐLJ;/ǀLJŽůůĞŐĞŽĨƵƐŝŶĞƐƐͿ
:ŽŶĂƚŚĂŶ,ĞƌŶĄŶĚĞnjKŵĂŹĂ, Dr. – Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAE Méx)
^ĞƌŐŝŽĞƉĞĚĂ,ĞƌŶĄŶĚĞnjƌ – Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM - Cuajimalpa)
DĂƌŝŽŚĂǀĂƌƌşĂ^ƵĄƌĞnjƌ – Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM - Cuajimalpa)
ƵƌĞŽůĂYƵŝŹŽŶĞnj^ĂůĐŝĚŽƌĂ – Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM - Cuajimalpa)
Mariana Moranchel Pocaterra, Dra. – Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM - Cuajimalpa)
:ŽƐƵĠsĞůĄnjƋƵĞnjDŽLJĂĚŽƌ – Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM)
^ĂŶĚƌĂ,ĞƌŶĄŶĚĞnjDƵŹŽnjƌĂ – Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM Cuajimalpa)
DĂƌƟŶĂĂƌůŽƐƌƌŽLJŽƌĂ – Universidad del Valle de Atemajac (UNIVA)
ZĂĨĂĞůsĞůĄnjƋƵĞnj&ůŽƌĞƐƌ – Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (UABC)
KŵĂƌ,ĞƌŶĄŶĚĞnjsĂƌŐĂƐDĂŐ – Universidad de Guadalajara (UdeG)
ŚƌŝƐƟĂŶWĂƵůŝŶĂDĞŶĚŽnjĂdŽƌƌĞƐƌĂ – Universidad de Celaya (UDEC)
'ƵŝůůĞƌŵŽ/ƐĂĂĐ'ŽŶnjĄůĞnjZŽĚƌşŐƵĞnj, D r. – /ŶƐƟƚƵƚŽdĞĐŶŽůſŐŝĐŽ:ŽƐĠDĂƌŝŽDŽůŝŶĂWĂƐƋƵĞůLJ
,ĞŶƌşƋƵĞnj(TECMM)
ƌĂĐĞůůLJ<ƌŝƐĂŶĚĂDĠƌŝĚĂ'ŽŶnjĄůĞnjƌĂ – Universidad de ^ĂŶĂƌůŽƐĚĞ'ƵĂƚĞŵĂůĂ;h^Ϳ
>ŝĂŶŶĞDŽƐƋƵĞĚĂWĂĚƌſŶƌĂ – Universidad de Las Tunas (ULT)
ZŽĚŽůĨŽĚĞKůŝǀĞŝƌĂDĞĚĞŝƌŽƐƌ – Universidad de Marília (UNIMAR)
ĚƵĂƌĚŽKƌƟŐŽnjĂDŽƌĞŶŽƌ – hŶŝǀĞƌƐŝĚĂĚĚĞůEŽƌƚĞ;hE/EKZdͿ
ŶŐĞůĞƐDDĂƋƵĞŝƌĂzĂŵĂƐĂŬŝMag. – Universidad de Lima (ULIMA)
1
PRESENTACIÓN
La invesgación cienfica actualmente cumple un papel esencial frente a los diversos retos
sociales, económicos, ambientales y tecnológicos que configuran nuestro empo. El
volumen 7 de Innovación Universitaria busca ser un espacio de encuentro muldisciplinario
donde confluyen invesgaciones rigurosas que aportan soluciones, abren debates y
fortalecen la construcción colecva del conocimiento. Esto en el marco de una era digital,
donde los medios de comunicación y las plataformas en línea se han converdo en actores
clave para difundir el conocimiento cienfico, permiendo que llegue a públicos más
amplios y no se limite únicamente al ámbito académico y sin olvidar que este proceso
enfrenta desaos importantes relacionados con la éca y la exactud de la información, los
cuales requieren especial atención. (Rodríguez, 2024).
Una vez más, reafirmamos nuestro compromiso con la calidad editorial, la éca en la
publicación y la visibilidad de la ciencia, entendiendo que Innovación Universitaria, como
revista cienfica, no solo preserva la memoria académica, sino que también promueve el
desarrollo de una cultura de invesgación cienfica dentro y fuera de nuestra propia
comunidad universitaria, impulsa nuevas líneas de invesgación y contribuye a la formación
de personas responsables y con conocimiento críco. Además, concordamos con lo
expuesto por López et al. (2024), cuando afirma que los arculos, como resultado de la
comunicación cienfica, reflejan la solidez del sistema cienfico de un país y constuyen
también una muestra del impacto que la ciencia ejerce en la cultura, la industria y la
economía.
Desde finales del 2024 y lo que llevamos de este 2025 hemos trabajado arduamente para
mejorar aspectos que consideramos fundamentales para el fortalecimiento de la revista:
añadimos idenficadores de objetos digitales (DOI) en nuestros arculos con el fin de
aumentar la visibilidad y garanzar a las personas lectoras un acceso directo y permanente
a los arculos publicados en nuestra revista. Nuestro comité cienfico internacional ha ido
creciendo y ahora lo componen más de sesenta personas expertas en disntas áreas y de
2
disntos países, como Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panamá, Argenna, Colombia, El Salvador,
Honduras, España, Estados Unidos, México, Guatemala, Cuba, Brasil, Paraguay y Perú.
Asimismo, connuamos con la parcipación y la actualización permanente en el ámbito de
la invesgación, así como en la edición y publicación cienfica para seguir mejorando como
proyecto editorial y connuar ofreciendo un espacio de calidad.
Esta edición reúne contribuciones en inglés y español que exponen enfoques diversos y de
gran relevancia, así como piezas de opinión que ponen la mirada sobre problemácas
actuales en derechos humanos ambientales, anente a la coyuntura nacional que se ha
presentado en los úlmos meses con los conflictos entre empresas desarrolladoras de
megaproyectos de carácter inmobiliario, comercial y turísco que comprometen la salud de
bosques, acuíferos y ecosistemas frágiles en el Pacifico norte del país y la persecución
judicial contra personas que han visibilizado públicamente esta situación, además de las
protestas comunales socioambientales en defensa del recurso hídrico que se han
desarrollado en los úlmos años en esta zona. (Marnez, 2025; Mora, 2025; Núñez, 2024).
En total, presentamos cinco textos, dos arculos de opinión, dos arculos originales y un
arculo de revisión. En la sección Editorial, Emily Kenward comparte su opinión sobre el
Acuerdo de Escazú y cómo este representa un instrumento fundamental para garanzar la
protección de los defensores de los derechos humanos ambientales en América Lana y el
Caribe, fortaleciendo así el cumplimiento de los ODS y la defensa conjunta de la naturaleza
y los derechos humanos. Por otro lado, David Cabrera Ruiz abre una discusión sobre la
educación superior en México y cómo esta requiere un currículo flexible, contextualizado e
interdisciplinario que responda a los cambios sociales y tecnológicos que fortalezcan la
pernencia y resiliencia de la oferta educava como base para el desarrollo regional.
En la sección de arculos, Jovanna Cervantes Guzmán revela cómo el aprendizaje
experiencial, al combinarse con conocimientos académicos con habilidades blandas en
equipos muldisciplinarios, fortalece las intenciones y capacidades emprendedoras del
estudiantado universitario, por lo que recomienda su integración en los planes de estudio
3
para impulsar innovación y desarrollo sostenible. Nikole Muñoz Villalobos, presenta un
análisis bibliométrico de la producción cienfica en el ámbito de las Relaciones
Internacionales en Costa Rica e Hispanoamérica, donde idenfica al comercio exterior, la
cooperación internacional, el medio ambiente y sostenibilidad, la geopolíca y los derechos
humanos como áreas predominantes, orientando así las líneas de invesgación en esta
disciplina. Por úlmo, Sandra Hernández, Sebasán Solano, Ana Patricia Rojas, Adriana
Hernández y Anielka Oporta explican cómo las cianobacterias y microalgas, por su
diversidad metabólica y aplicaciones en salud, cosméca, nanotecnología, agricultura y
medio ambiente, representan una alternava estratégica para enfrentar desaos globales,
aunque aún requieren avances en regulación, estandarización y escalabilidad para que su
aprovechamiento sea efecvo.
Cada trabajo ofrece una mirada precisa y vigente, aportando no solo al avance de la
invesgación en su campo, sino también a la comprensión de problemas complejos que
demandan perspecvas inter y muldisciplinarias.
Invitamos a las personas lectoras a recorrer las páginas de esta edición con la actud
reflexiva y apertura intelectual que caracteriza a la invesgación cienfica, con la seguridad
de que los aportes aquí reunidos serán de ulidad para personas invesgadoras, docentes,
estudiantes y profesionales interesadas en los retos y oportunidades de nuestro empo.
Finalmente, expresamos nuestro sincero agradecimiento a todas las personas que, de una
u otra forma, hicieron posible el desarrollo de esta edición. Reconocemos especialmente la
dedicación de quienes integran el consejo editorial, el compromiso del equipo técnico, la
valiosa labor del comité cienfico conformado por un destacado grupo de profesionales, y,
por supuesto, la parcipación de las personas autoras que enriquecen con sus aportes el
volumen 7 de Innovación Universitaria.
Adriana Luna Canales, Mag.
Editora en jefe
4
REFERENCIAS
López Riquelme, G. O., Solís-Chagoyán, H., Casllo Padilla, D. V., y Rosanía-Maza, N. A.
(2024). La belleza e importancia de las revistas cienficas. Artefactos. Revista de
Estudios Filosóficos Sobre Ciencia y Tecnología, 13(2), 27–54.
hps://doi.org/10.14201/art2024.32052
Marnez, A. (2025, 13 de agosto). 72 organizaciones y miles de personas exigen frenar Bahía
Papagayo y denuncian persecución judicial contra defensores ambientales.
Delfino.cr. hps://delfino.cr/2025/08/72-organizaciones-y-miles-de-personas-
exigen-frenar-bahia-papagayo-y-denuncian-persecucion-judicial-contra-defensores-
ambientales
Mora Noguera, G. (2025, 14 de marzo). Defensores ambientales: Una lucha que exige
protección. Radios UCR. hps://radios.ucr.ac.cr/2025/03/radio-870/defensores-
ambientales/
Núñez Zúñiga, J. (2024, 6 de marzo). Desarrollos inmobiliarios en Guanacaste dieron pie a
protestas por el agua. UNA Comunica.
hps://www.unacomunica.una.ac.cr/index.php/marzo-2024/5189-pese-a-repunte-
en-inversion-desarrollos-inmobiliarios-en-guanacaste-originaron-protestas-por-el-
agua
Rodríguez Jiménez, F. J. (2024). Invesgación y divulgación cienfica: su importancia para el
avance de la Física. Avances Invesgación En Ingeniería, 21(1 (enero-junio).
hps://doi.org/10.18041/1794-4953/avances.1.11531
Universidad Nacional – UNA Comunica. (2024, 6 de marzo). Desarrollos inmobiliarios en
Guanacaste dieron pie a protestas por el agua. UNA Comunica.
hps://www.unacomunica.una.ac.cr/index.php/marzo-2024/5189-pese-a-repunte-
en-inversion-desarrollos-inmobiliarios-en-guanacaste-originaron-protestas-por-el-
agua
5
ESCAZÚ AGREEMENT: A FRAMEWORK FOR PROTECTING ENVIRONMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS
DEFENDERS AND ADVANCING SDG 16
EL ACUERDO DE ESCAZÚ: UN MARCO DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS PARA LA PROTECCIÓN DE LOS
DEFENSORES DE LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS AMBIENTALES Y EL AVANCE DEL ODS 16
DOI: https://doi.org/10.64312/x210bg59
Emily Kenward
ekenward@master.upeace.org
University for Peace
San José, Costa Rica
Received: 03-03-2025
Accepted: 04-24-2025
ABSTRACT
The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) seek to provide a blueprint for global
peace and prosperity through a human rights-based approach. SDG 16 aims to promote peaceful
and inclusive societies by ensuring access to justice and fostering strong institutions. However,
negative trends in climate change, natural resource exploitation, biodiversity loss, and ecosystem
health threaten the ability of nations worldwide to achieve the SDGs. Environmental human rights
defenders (EHRDs) play a vital role in forging pathways to sustainable development that are
equitable for both humans and the environment. Despite this, EHRDs are increasingly subjected
to a wide range of physical and structural violence that threatens their human rights and
environmental protection. The Escazú Agreement is the first and only multilateral treaty that
explicitly recognizes the rights of EHRDs to a healthy environment and sustainable development.
This paper seeks to highlight the Escazú Agreement as a mechanism for strengthening access to
rights in Latin American and Caribbean nations in accordance with SDG target 16.10, which
pertains to public access to information and protection of fundamental freedoms. The spirit of
6
the Escazú Agreement reminds the world that, to protect human rights and nature, the global
community must begin by protecting the people who defend the environment.
KEYWORDS: SDG 16, EHRDs, Escazú Agreement, human rights, sustainability.
RESUMEN
Los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) de las Naciones Unidas pretenden proporcionar un
plan para la paz y la prosperidad mundial con un enfoque basado en los derechos humanos. Los
ODS 16 promueven sociedades pacíficas e inclusivas mediante el acceso a la justicia y la solidez
institucional. Sin embargo, las tendencias negativas del cambio climático, la explotación de
recursos naturales, la pérdida de biodiversidad y el deterioro de la salud de los ecosistemas
comprometen la capacidad de las naciones para alcanzar los ODS. Los defensores de los derechos
humanos ambientales desempeñan un papel vital en la construcción de un desarrollo sostenible
que beneficie tanto a las personas como al medio ambiente. A pesar de esto, los defensores de
los derechos humanos ambientales están cada vez más expuestos a violencia física y estructural
que amenaza sus derechos humanos y la protección del medio ambiente. El Acuerdo de Escazú
es el primer y único tratado multilateral que reconoce explícitamente los derechos de los
defensores de los derechos humanos ambientales a un medio ambiente sano y a un desarrollo
sostenible. Se busca destacar este acuerdo como un mecanismo para fortalecer el acceso a estos
derechos en las naciones de América Latina y el Caribe, alineándose con la meta 16.10 de los ODS
sobre el acceso público a la información y la protección de las libertades fundamentales. El
acuerdo recuerda a la comunidad internacional que la protección de los derechos humanos y la
naturaleza comienza con la protección de quienes defienden el medio ambiente.
PALABRAS CLAVE: SDG 16, EHRD, Acuerdo de Escazú, derechos humanos, sostenibilidad
INTRODUCTION
Negative trends in climate change, natural resource exploitation, and ecosystem health have
significant economic, social, and cultural implications for humans (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023). More
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specifically, climate change and environmental degradation pose a substantial threat to human
rights around the world, including the rights to health, water, food, housing, culture, and life itself
(Monawvil & Adame, 2022). Protecting individual human rights is an important and challenging
agenda item for the United Nations. This is reflected in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
which seek to provide a blueprint for global peace and prosperity (Hanhimaki, 2015). A significant
challenge that the international system faces in the 21
st
century lies in devising regional
sustainable development strategies that address vulnerable environmental realities from both
ecological and socio-economic perspectives (Mohammed, 2021).
Environmental human rights defenders (EHRDs) play a vital role in forging pathways to
sustainable development that are equitable for humans and the environment (Ituarte-Lima et al.,
2023). Despite this, EHRDs are increasingly subjected to a wide range of physical and structural
violence that seeks to undermine their efforts. Between 2012 and 2023, an estimated 2,106
EHRDs were murdered globally (Furones et al., 2024). Nearly three out of four EHRDs are
murdered in Latin America and the Caribbean annually, making the region one of the most
dangerous in the world for environmental defenders (Monawvil & Adame, 2022). This weakens
the capacity of these nations to address environmental degradation and social justice outlined by
the UN Sustainable Development Goals.
The Escazú Agreement —formally known as the Regional Agreement on Access to Information,
Public Participation, and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean—
is the first and only multilateral treaty that explicitly recognizes the rights of EHRDs (Ituarte-Lima
et al., 2023). It also serves as a mechanism for strengthening access to the rights to a healthy
environment and sustainable development in Latin American and Caribbean nations in
accordance with SDG 16 (Mohammed, 2021). This paper aims to analyze the effectiveness of the
Escazú Agreement in advancing SDG 16, specifically focusing on target 16.10, which pertains to
public access to information and protection of fundamental freedoms. Through the SDGs, the
United Nations has the responsibility to protect EHRDs, who are vital to creating a more peaceful,
just, and inclusive society for people and the planet.
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What is SDG 16 and Target 16.10?
One of the essential functions of the United Nations is to promote global norms relevant to
sustainable development (Fukuda-Parr, 2018). The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
promises a transformative, legally non-binding action plan for sustainable development involving
not just the governments of states but also civil society stakeholders (Fukuda-Parr, 2018). All 193
member states of the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda in 2015, which includes 17 SDGs
and 169 targets (Mohammed, 2021). The 2030 Agenda recognizes the interconnected nature of
sustainable development challenges, including across social, economic, and environmental
sectors, providing a holistic approach previously absent from the Millennium Development Goals
(Muñoz-Ávila & Guerrero, 2023).
SDG 16 aims to promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, to provide
access to justice for all, and to build effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions at all levels
(ECLAC, 2015). It is seen as a foundational goal for the achievement of other goals in the 2030
Agenda, making its success paramount. Specifically, target 16.10 “refers to the importance of
public access to information and the protection of fundamental freedoms in accordance with
national legislation and international agreements” (Mohammed, 2021, p. 204). This is measured
by two indicators: the number of “verified cases of killing, kidnapping, enforced disappearance,
arbitrary detention, and torture” against human rights defenders and the number of countries
that “adopt and implement constitutional, statutory, and/or policy guarantees” for their safety
(UN, 2024, “Indicators” section). Under SDG 16, the rule of law becomes a catalyst for sustainable
development by promoting access to justice and the enforcement of human rights protections
(ECLAC, 2019). This requires states to address institutional and structural obstacles that prevent
the realization of human rights, effective rule of law, access to information, and good governance
(Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023).
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Who are environmental human rights defenders?
Many terms have been used to describe individuals or groups who mobilize civil society against
environmental pollution, extractive activities, biodiversity loss, and climate change (Ituarte-Lima
et al., 2023). This paper will focus on “environmental human rights defenders,” a term recognized
by the United Nations Environment Programme. According to United Nations A/71/281, EHRDs
are “individuals and groups who, in their personal or professional capacity and in a peaceful
manner, strive to protect and promote human rights relating to the environment, including water,
air, land, flora and fauna” (UNEP, 2016, p. 4). In many cases, EHRDs are members of indigenous
groups or from local communities whose access to natural resources and ways of life are
threatened by industrialized enterprises (UN Special Rapporteur, 2016). While EHRDs come from
many different intersectional backgrounds and deploy context-specific strategies to achieve their
goals, a commonality is their commitment to protecting the environment on which a wide range
of human rights depend (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023). Their knowledge, participation, and leadership
are vital for achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals. However, EHRDs often face
physical and structural violence by corporate, state, and non-state actors that limit the
effectiveness of their actions (Jauregui, 2024).
EHRDs become vulnerable when they exercise their individual powers and influence to challenge
the status quo (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023). Violence against EHRDs includes threats and acts of
harm, murder, arbitrary detention, forced disappearance, judicial harassment, and
criminalization (Panovics, 2021). Since 2012, the British human rights organization Global Witness
has published annual reports on violence against environmental defenders. In 2023, at least 196
EHRDs were murdered worldwide (Jauregui, 2024). For EHRDs, Latin America and the Caribbean
is the most dangerous region, constituting 85% of documented murders (Jauregui, 2024). Due to
difficulties in reporting and verifying harm against EHRDs, current statistics only represent a
fraction of the larger problem (Panovics, 2021). Additionally, many instances of violence have
little to no legal consequences for the perpetrators and may even be committed by governments
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themselves (Jauregui, 2024). This makes accountability difficult without proper, binding channels
for EHRDs to obtain justice, further exacerbating violations of environmental and human rights.
History of the Escazú Agreement
In 1992, Principle 10 of the UN Earth Summit, also known as the Rio Conference, outlined
fundamental agendas for environmental governance: access to information, participation, and
justice in environmental matters (Panovics, 2021). Over the years, Principle 10 has provided a
globally recognized framework for developing national standards and laws related to
environmental rights, as demonstrated by the Escazú Agreement. The Agreement was adopted
in Escazú, Costa Rica, on March 4, 2018 (Panovics, 2021). It was the result of a regional negotiation
process that took place from 2014 to 2018 that featured significant participation from civil society
representatives and experts in environmental law and human rights from Latin America and the
Caribbean (IISD, 2021). The Escazú Agreement became effective on April 22, 2021, coinciding with
International Mother Earth Day (Panovics, 2021).
The Escazú Agreement outlines arrangements to ensure the full and effective implementation of
Principle 10, which was reaffirmed at the 2012 Rio+20 Conference (Panovics, 2021). This includes
civil society’s right to access environmental information, participate in environmental decision-
making processes, and seek justice in environmental matters (Monawvil & Adame, 2022). The
Agreement aims to create and strengthen parties’ capacity and cooperation-building measures,
as well as to protect the rights of present and future generations to live in a healthy environment
and to develop sustainably (ECLAC, n.d.). In discussing the obligations of parties, Mohammed
(2021) emphasizes that parties are required to guarantee “an enabling environment” for civil
society organizations, ensuring that “guidance and assistance” are provided to the public,
particularly to individuals or groups in vulnerable situations (p. 215). The Escazú Agreement is
legally binding, which differs from other non-binding ‘soft law’ regional agreements, including the
2030 Agenda. Therefore, the signature and ratification of the Agreement signify a serious
commitment to its principles on a domestic level (Mohammed, 2021). The Agreement is open to
all 33 countries in the Latin America and Caribbean region. Unfortunately, the ratification process
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has progressed slowly (Muñoz-Ávila & Guerrero, 2023). At the time of writing, 24 countries have
signed it, and 17 countries have also ratified it (ECLAC, 2024).
The legally binding nature of the Escazú Agreement is key to establishing strong channels of
justice for EHRDs as they seek to protect themselves and their environments from violence.
However, the same characteristic that gives the Escazú Agreement strength may also contribute
to the reluctance of countries to sign and ratify. Ratifying this agreement reflects a country's
commitment to uphold international norms and values, government transparency, and the rule
of law. As demonstrated by the previously stated Global Witness statistics, EHRDs from Latin
American and Caribbean countries, many of whom identify as indigenous, face some of the most
dangerous conditions to carry out their activism with little to no channels to pursue justice. When
economic development is inextricably linked to the exploitation of natural resources, signing and
ratifying the Escazú Agreement becomes a burden for countries wanting to avoid potential
roadblocks to prosperity. This does not mean that the legally binding nature of the Escazú
Agreement should be abandoned altogether. As climate change continues to progress, more
pressure will be put on the international community to develop sustainably. The consequences
of climate change, coupled with pressure from civil society, can encourage countries to sign and
ratify the Escazú Agreement to strengthen their regional and international legitimacy. Therefore,
the legally binding nature will be necessary to build climate resilience in line with the 2030 Agenda.
The Escazú Agreement and SDG Target 16.10
This Agreement represents the first environmental treaty ever concluded under the auspices of
the UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. It is also the first treaty
globally to contain specific provisions on EHRDs and to reinforce the region’s commitment to the
implementation of the 2030 Agenda (Panovics, 2021). The Agreement provides a pathway to
realizing SDG 16 by strengthening the rule of law, enhancing participatory democracy, protecting
human rights, and preventing social conflicts amid shifts in economic production patterns
(Monawvil & Adame, 2022). The Escazú Agreement aims to combat inequality and discrimination,
highlights individuals and groups in vulnerable situations, and places equity at the core of
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sustainable development (Panovics, 2021). However, violence against EHRDs undermines the
ability of states to achieve SDG target 16.10, as measured by this indicator (ECLAC, 2019).
The targeting of EHRDs in Latin America and the Caribbean is a harsh reality (Mohammed, 2021).
EHRDs are frequently placed within a narrative that they are opposed to one economic activity in
particular that is destroying their natural environment or denying them access to natural
resources. This approach is reinforced by the fact that “since these activities are promoted by
nation-states in the name of ‘development,’ in some countries, environmental defenders are
portrayed as ‘anti-development,’ ‘anti-progress,’ ‘anti-modernity,’ or ‘enemies of the state’”
(Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023, p. 351). On the contrary, EHRDs are often ordinary citizens attempting
to exercise their rights established by domestic legal frameworks (UNEP, 2018). The Escazú
Agreement advances target 16.10 by taking a rights-based approach that establishes obligations
for states in the region concerning participation, access to information, and access to legal
procedures for challenging environmental violations (Mohammed, 2021).
According to Article 8 of the Escazú Agreement, parties must offer free technical and legal support
to vulnerable individuals to reduce or remove obstacles to justice (Mohammed, 2021). The first
paragraph of Article 9 states that “each party shall take adequate and effective measures to
recognize, protect and promote all the rights of human rights defenders in environmental matters”
(Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023, p. 353). Public participation and access to justice serve to address
inequalities and empower the most vulnerable, fostering the creation of peaceful and inclusive
societies for sustainable development (Mohammed, 2021). Access to justice in realizing
environmental rights as outlined in the Escazú Agreement supports the advancement of target
16.10. This is important because by effectively recognizing and enforcing these rights, the
incidence of human rights violations against EHRDs can decrease significantly, saving lives and
increasing environmental protections (Panovics, 2021).
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DISCUSSION
As shared by Michelle Bachelet, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, multilateral treaties
“like the Escazú Agreement are one of the most effective tools” supported by the United Nations
“for holding states accountable, defending human rights, and protecting the health of people and
the planet” (IISD, 2021, paragraph 9). While the Escazú Agreement represents unprecedented
progress in terms of supporting SDG 16, it is important to acknowledge several critiques: (1) the
willingness and ability of states to act; (2) the reality of intersectionality in the identities of EHRDs;
and (3) the agency of EHRDs to meaningfully contribute to the sustainable development discourse
beyond their vulnerable status.
Firstly, political will is the main roadblock to institutional reform globally (Samarsinghe, 2018).
The three pillars of the Escazú Agreement — right to access to information, public participation,
and access to justice — rely on robust governance for their realization (Panovics, 2021). However,
the narrowing of democratic space in the Latin America and Caribbean region poses a challenge
to realizing SDG 16 (ECLAC, 2019). As Muñoz-Ávila & Guerrero (2023) explain, achieving the SDGs
requires “greater government transparency and more participatory democracies” (p. 204).
Additionally, the responsibilities of each party regarding EHRDs are shaped by their unique
understanding of civil, cultural, economic, political, and social rights (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023).
While sustainable development priorities are proposed as universal, states differ significantly in
their resources, capacities, and challenges (Fukuda-Parr, 2018). Ultimately, the effective
execution of the Escazú Agreement depends on the willingness and ability of parties to implement
the three pillars fully and progressively (Panovics, 2021).
Secondly, climate change acts as a catalyst for existing vulnerabilities, exacerbating its effects on
countries and people who find themselves on the front lines of defending their environments
against corporate, state, and non-state exploitation (Panovics, 2021). According to UN General
Assembly Resolution 68/181, EHRDs who are women are especially vulnerable to physical and
structural violence as they are prone to multiple, intersecting forms of gender-based
discrimination (UNGA, 2014). While Article 7 of the Escazú Agreement “specifically refers to state
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obligations to establish conditions that are adapted to gender characteristics of the public,”
interpretation and execution may differ between parties (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023, p. 355).
Additionally, over one-third of all fatal attacks on EHRDs target Indigenous Peoples, who protect
approximately 80% of the remaining biodiversity on Earth (Jauregui, 2024). Recognizing the
diverse backgrounds, cultures, and belief systems of EHRDs is essential; consequently, their rights
should encompass economic, social, and cultural dimensions that consider the intersectionality
of gender, age, ethnicity, and socio-economic status (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023).
Lastly, while much of global attention is placed on protecting EHRDs from physical and structural
violence as well as death, it is also vital “to understand their role as agents of change and as
central actors” in advancing the UN Sustainable Development Goals (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023, p.
348). Access to justice through domestic legal systems allows civil society to enforce their rights
to be informed, to participate, and to hold public authorities and extractive industries
accountable for environmental harm (Panovics, 2021). However, transformative change in these
areas requires addressing the root causes of the different challenges that create vulnerability for
certain communities (Fukuda-Parr, 2018). The Escazú Agreement underscores the critical
relationship between people and governments, imposing specific obligations on parties to the
public regarding environmental and human rights (Panovics, 2021). EHRDs actively confront
existing power structures and challenge prevailing norms. A limited perspective on environmental
defenders fails to recognize the diverse relationships they foster between humans and nature,
rendering any future actions inadequate (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023).
CONCLUSION
According to the Human Rights Council, every state is required to ensure a secure and supportive
environment that allows individuals, groups, and organizations focused on human rights and
environmental matters to function without fear, obstacles, or danger (UNGA, 2013). The United
Nations is crucial as the sole global entity capable of influencing nations to modify their human
rights policies and support individuals at risk of power abuses (Hanhimaki, 2015). The 2030
Agenda and its proposed SDGs are vital for determining global priorities across the United Nations
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system (Fukuda-Parr, 2018). However, to effectively advance the SDGs, state obligations
regarding EHRDs and the right to a healthy environment must take precedence in the Latin
America and Caribbean region (Ituarte-Lima et al., 2023).
Achievement of SDG 16 depends on a multi-stakeholder approach. As outlined in this paper, the
Escazú Agreement is key to advancing the 2030 Agenda as a whole, particularly target 16.10
(ECLAC, 2019). The Escazú Agreement’s provisions on public participation procedures and access
to information offer a detailed framework for parties to develop their laws, which can enhance
the implementation of human rights specified in SDG 16 (Mohammed, 2021). The ratification of
the Escazú Agreement underscores the significance of regional multilateralism in promoting
sustainable development and highlights the crucial role of civil society and the broader public in
the negotiation process (Panovics, 2021). The connection between human rights and the
environment should create a positive cycle in which the exercise of human rights supports
environmental protection, and conversely, a healthy environment fosters the complete
realization of human rights (UN Special Rapporteur, 2016).
Monawvil & Adame (2022) state, “The spirit of the Escazú Agreement reminds the world that, to
protect the environment, we need to start by protecting the people who defend it,” which was
originally shared in a joint statement by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the
Rapporteur on Economic, Social, Cultural, and Environmental Rights, and OHCHR (p. 6). When
governments fail to protect the rights and lives of EHRDs, “the result is often conflict, forceful
displacement, environmental degradation, and human rights violations” (CIEL, 2016, p. 4). With
the year 2030 fast approaching, it is more important than ever not only for countries to make
quantifiable progress toward the SDGs, but also for the United Nations to continue to evaluate
their efficacy. This evaluation is crucial for the United Nations to foster a more peaceful, just, and
inclusive society for both people and the planet.